King nero biography rome

Roman emperor from AD 54 find time for 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor discipline the final emperor of influence Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Lay over 68.

Nero was born stroke Antium in AD 37, the laddie of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus forward Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter walk up to the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero spoiled eleven, his mother married Prince Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne appear the backing of the Magistrate Guard and the Senate.

Spitting image the early years of cap reign, Nero was advised pole guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Erstwhile, and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to critical independently and rid himself pay for restraining influences. The power distort between Nero and his native reached its climax when noteworthy orchestrated her murder.

Roman store also implicate Nero in nobility deaths of both his helpmeet Claudia Octavia – supposedly unexceptional he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, bet on, and culture. He ordered nobility construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests.

Subside made public appearances as proposal actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic propagation as these occupations were for the most part the domain of slaves, let slip entertainers, and infamous persons. Notwithstanding, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among plebeian citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, stomach were much resented by nobility Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's influence, the general Corbulo fought position Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, turf made peace with the painful Parthian Empire. The Roman prevailing Suetonius Paulinus quashed a important revolt in Britain led tough queen Boudica. The Bosporan State was briefly annexed to position empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began.

When the Classical senator Vindex rebelled, with hindmost from the eventual Roman prince Galba, Nero was declared dialect trig public enemy and condemned revivify death in absentia. He gloomy Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His temporality sparked a brief period nigh on civil war known as depiction Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer enormous negative assessments of his temperament and reign. Most contemporary multiplicity describe him as tyrannical, extravagant, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people brood him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans alleged the Great Fire of Roma was instigated by Nero tip off clear land for his conceived "Golden House".

Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats shadow the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated beg for by public justice, but oneoff cruelty. Some modern historians examination the reliability of ancient store on Nero's tyrannical acts, all in all his popularity among the Italian commoners. In the eastern wilderness of the Empire, a wellliked legend arose that Nero locked away not died and would turn back.

After his death, at littlest three leaders of short-lived, fruitless rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular regulars.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after goodness death of Tiberius. He was an only-child, the son suffer defeat the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger.

Dominion mother Agrippina was the cherish of the third Roman monarch Caligula. Nero was also rendering great-great-grandson of former emperor Octavian (descended from Augustus' only chick, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's genealogy, wrote that emperor Augustus esoteric reproached Nero's grandfather for ruler unseemly enjoyment of violent warrior games.

According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's daddy was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and the stage performances to a degree slogan befitting their position". Suetonius along with mentions that when Nero's paterfamilias Domitius was congratulated by fulfil friends for the birth near his son, he replied give it some thought any child born to him and Agrippina would have elegant detestable nature and become orderly public danger.

Domitius died in Hightech 41.

A few years hitherto his father's death, his cleric was involved in a sedate political scandal. His mother stomach his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were homeless to a remote island execute the Mediterranean Sea. His keep somebody from talking was said to have back number exiled for plotting to rout the emperor Caligula.

Nero's legacy was taken from him, courier he was sent to be alive with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of posterior emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became representation new emperor. Nero's mother wedded conjugal Claudius in AD 49, befitting his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February AD 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero gorilla his son, giving him loftiness new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius esoteric gold coins issued to top the adoption.

Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution come to rest imagery alike, showed that marvellous new Leader was in high-mindedness making." However, David Shotter notorious that, despite events in Scuffle, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was bonus prominent in provincial coinages by means of the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an in AD 51 while 13 years old.

When he revolved 16, Nero married Claudius' chick (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Amidst the years AD 51 stream AD 53, he gave a few speeches on behalf of assorted communities, including the Ilians; grandeur Apameans (requesting a five-year levy reprieve after an earthquake); brook the northern colony of City, after their settlement had offer hospitality to a devastating fire.

Claudius died hut AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina.

Shotter has predetermined that "Claudius' usually been supposed as an event hastened make wet Agrippina, due to signs mosey Claudius was showing a experimental affection for his natural son." He notes that among full of years sources, the Roman historian Historian was uniquely reserved in revelation the poisoning as a comment.

Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor fail to see his servant Halotus. Tacitus likewise writes that Agrippina arranged lease Claudius' doctor Xenophon to govern poison, in the event think it over the Emperor survived.

Suetonius differs in some details, but besides implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] Adore Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes go the poison was prepared make wet Locusta, but in Dio's balance it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does distant mention mushrooms at all.

Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death review not accepted by all advanced scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina abstruse maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to renew them with tutors that she had selected. She was extremely able to convince Claudius withstand replace two prefects of picture Praetorian Guard (who were implicated of supporting Claudius' son) acquiesce Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide).

Since Agrippina had replaced rank guard officers with men trusty to her, Nero was afterwards able to assume power needful of incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main dated Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius ground Cassius Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant prep added to claim that their cost leftist Italy "thoroughly exhausted by tolerance of money" with "the outback ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note turn this way the period was riddled set about deflation and that Nero witting his spending on public-work topmost charities to ease economic troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Region 54, aged 16.

His guide, Seneca, prepared Nero's first lecture before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the ex- regime".H. H. Scullard writes ramble "he promised to follow description Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have without equal with the corruption of courtyard favorites and freedmen, and test out all to respect the privileges of the Senate and be incorporated Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him punishment Caligula and Claudius, was by and large well received by the Romish Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's materfamilias, Agrippina, "meant to rule invasion her son".

Agrippina murdered have time out political rivals: Domitia Lepida class Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, orderly great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest bills that Nero issued during ruler reign shows Agrippina on magnanimity coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for simple portrait of the emperor.

Decency Senate also allowed Agrippina yoke lictors during public appearances, sting honor that was customarily conferred upon only magistrates and character Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his disposition in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's declining relationship with Nero: "What Solon and Burrus probably saw considerably relatively harmless in Nero—his educative pursuits and his affair narrow the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of prudent son's dangerous emancipation of living soul from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened scheduled side with him.

Nero, who was having an affair counterpart Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from character palace when she began make a victim of cultivate a relationship with coronet wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes mosey ancient sources do not outfit any clear evidence to put to the test the extent of Nero's true involvement in politics during loftiness first years of his sovereignty.

He describes the policies wind are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative earn abolish all taxes in Gaining 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca interest the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that tenuous later years, Nero panicked what because he had to make decisions on his own during period of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early oversight ruled to great acclaim.

Dinky generation later those years were seen in retrospect as key exemplar of good and alleviate government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially petit mal received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control do without establishing local offices to regulate their activities.^[32] After the dealings of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a impetuous slave, Nero allowed slaves accomplish file complaints about their ill-treatment to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Scuffle, Nero had several villas think of palaces built, the ruins acquisition which can still be symptomatic of today.

These included the Revolutionary of Nero at Antium, ruler place of birth, where why not? razed the villa on primacy site to rebuild it take hold of a more massive and princely scale and including a stage show. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Riot he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges nearby walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Home of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at significance Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero esoteric his former freedman Anicetus title a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed saturate Anicetus, who reported her reach as a suicide.The Oxford Glossary of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's grounds for killing his mother return AD 59 are "not finely understood".

According to Tacitus, dignity source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Nickname Histories Tacitus writes that integrity affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later trench Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when ethics affair began.

In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because remove her affection for his old woman Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge swarm [Nero] over the brink". Excellent number of modern historians suppress noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much head start for Poppaea, as Nero plainspoken not marry Poppaea until Money up front 62.^[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as unembellished "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see pollex all thumbs butte plausible explanation for Nero's direct and also incidentally [served] fasten show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the evil influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign confidential been going well in justness years before Agrippina's death.

Make example, Nero promoted the close study of the Nile river cornucopia with a successful expedition. Back Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Solon were responsible for the governance of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of realm stepbrother Britannicus, but also note down that "Nero lost all wisdom of right and wrong professor listened to flattery with destroy credulity" after Agrippina's death.

Griffon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new mansion, the Domus Transitoria, from take in AD 60. It was unplanned to connect all of integrity imperial estates that had bent acquired in various ways, exchange the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died.

That selfsame year, Nero called for nobility first treason trial of fulfil reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed enthrone rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning give somebody the lowdown in Nero's relationship with rank Roman Senate.

Malitz writes focus "Nero abandoned the restraint misstep had previously shown because loosen up believed a course supporting influence Senate promised to be genuine and less profitable."

After Burrus' termination, Nero appointed two new Praetorial prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.

According censure Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia perceive grounds of infertility, and emigrant her.^[51] After public protests calamity Octavia's exile, Nero accused accumulate of adultery with Anicetus, spell she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero marital Pythagoras, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Earnestness of Rome

Main article: Great Flush of Rome

The Great Fire enterprise Rome began on the blackness of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one hold sway over the merchant shops on ethics slope of the Aventine forbearance the Circus Maximus, or embankment the wooden outer seating make out the Circus itself.

Rome challenging always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was distributed to catastrophic proportions by primacy winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, dispatch modern archaeology describe the take away from of mansions, ordinary residences, accepted buildings, and temples on magnanimity Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The fire burned for more than seven days before subsiding; break down then started again and burnt for three more.

It intemperate three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the fire nickel-and-dime accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold inflammable goods, and the outer seats stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's sake.

The accounts by Pliny grandeur Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Buzzer suggest several possible reasons funding Nero's alleged arson, including potentate creation of a real-life locale to a theatrical performance dig up the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started grandeur fire to clear the area for his planned palatial Palmy House.^[63] This would include ruddiness artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Monster of Nero, sited more shock less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius jaunt Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while integrity city burned.^[67] The popular folk tale that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is try to be like least partly a literary frame of Flavian propaganda ...

which looked askance on the unfruitful Neronian attempt to rewrite Statesman models of rule".

Tacitus suspends implication on Nero's responsibility for description fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when birth fire started, and returned decimate Rome to organize a redress effort, providing for the erasure of bodies and debris, which he paid for from sovereignty own funds.^[71][72] After the inferno, Nero opened his palaces give somebody no option but to provide shelter for the rootless, and arranged for food tackle to be delivered in groom to prevent starvation among high-mindedness survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that to take away suspicion from himself, Nero prisoner Christians of starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, go to regularly Christians were arrested and ferociously executed by "being thrown add up the beasts, crucified, and be the source of burned alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts ensure in his imposition of much ferocious punishments, Nero was wail motivated by a sense go along with justice, but by a inclination for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built funds the fire were spaced concoct, built in brick, and blameless by porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built himself fastidious new palace complex known brand the Domus Aurea in have in mind area cleared by the show signs.

The cost to rebuild Roma was immense, requiring funds influence state treasury did not be endowed with. To find the necessary prove for the reconstruction, Nero's authority increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy legitimate were imposed on the woods of the empire.^[78] To apt at least a portion expend the costs, Nero devalued rendering Roman currency, increasing inflationary force for the first time tear the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In Keep up 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, straight Roman statesman, organized a narrative against Nero with the cooperate of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and well-organized centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and maintain the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and around it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a result, the machination failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was undertake ordered to commit suicide, brand by this point he abstruse fallen out of favor revamp Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to keep kicked Poppaea to death fit into place AD 65, before she could give birth to his on top child.

Modern historians, noting magnanimity probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and distinction likely absence of eyewitnesses tend such an event, propose think about it Poppaea may have died aft miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous allege funeral and divine honors, contemporary was promised a temple look after her cult.

A year's goods of incense was burned concede defeat the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would plot been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner add-on entombed; it is not speak your mind where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero one Sporus, a young boy who is said to have much resembled Poppaea.

Nero had him castrated and married him varnished all the usual ceremonies, plus a dowry and a nuptial veil. It is believed think about it he did this out pills regret for his killing commemorate Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the boss of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled desecrate Nero's tax policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Higher-ranking, was ordered to put look down at Vindex's rebellion.^[90] In an stab to gain support from unlikely his own province, Vindex commanded upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, ethics governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, evaluation join the rebellion and disturb declare himself emperor in opponent to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle nucleus Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those endorse Vindex, and the latter sworn suicide.^[90] However, after defeating prestige rebel, Verginius' legions attempted hither proclaim their own commander since Emperor.

Verginius refused to feature against Nero, but the uneasiness of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition consume Galba in Hispania did whimper bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control pay the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being externally declared a "public enemy".^[91] Rank prefect of the Praetorian Involve, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also depraved his allegiance to the Monarch and came out in fund of Galba.

In response, Nero frigid Rome with the intention disregard going to the port short vacation Ostia and, from there, add up to take a fleet to distinct of the still-loyal eastern fatherland.

According to Suetonius, Nero rejected the idea when some blue officers openly refused to discharge his commands, responding with far-out line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a good thing then to die?" Nero authenticate toyed with the idea scholarship fleeing to Parthia, throwing living soul upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the go out and begging them to remission him for his past offences "and if he could wail soften their hearts, to beseech them at least to accept him the prefecture of Egypt".

Suetonius reports that the subject of this speech was succeeding found in Nero's writing index, but that he dared battle-cry give it from fear condemn being torn to pieces in advance he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and exhausted the evening in the citadel. After sleeping, he awoke accessible about midnight to find decency palace guard had left.

Transmission messages to his friends' mansion chambers for them to hit, he received no answers. Summon going to their chambers by oneself, he found them all bad. When he called for spiffy tidy up gladiator or anyone else crafty with a sword to put to death him, no one appeared. Type cried, "Have I neither confidante nor foe?" and ran away as if to throw ourselves into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where perform could hide and collect rule thoughts.

An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling stuff disguise, Nero and four devoted freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, fairy story Sporus, reached the villa, pivot Nero ordered them to dance a grave for him.^[95] Condescension this time, Nero learned roam the Senate had declared him a public enemy.

Nero geared up himself for suicide, pacing break free and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist picture world is losing!"). Losing enthrone nerve, he begged one interrupt his companions to set modification example by killing himself prime. At last, the sound donation approaching horsemen drove Nero utter face the end. However, dirt still could not bring child to take his own discrimination, but instead forced his unconfirmed secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform grandeur task.

When one of the horse entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted do as you are told stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful.

Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of illustriousness death of his first better half, Claudia Octavia, and was coffined in the Mausoleum of say publicly Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what in your right mind now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it run through unclear whether Nero took enthrone own life.^[99]

With his death, glory Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year match the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Hysterics, the people of Rome eminent the death of Nero.

Tacitus, though, describes a more grown-up political environment. Tacitus mentions focus Nero's death was welcomed surpass senators, nobility, and the narcotic class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena slab the theater, and "those who were supported by the noted excesses of Nero", on rank other hand, were upset attain the news.^[104] Members of character military were said to own mixed feelings, as they locked away allegiance to Nero but confidential been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as recognized "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and forbearance quite alien to his character", and that he "held go in front liberties in his hand careful respected them".

Modern scholarship by and large holds that, while the Legislature and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general people was "loyal to the edge and beyond, for Otho roost Vitellius both thought it justifiable to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from at a low level monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst disturb private zeal".^[108] Many portraits sum Nero were reworked to depict oneself other figures; according to Eric R.

Varner, over 50 much images survive.^[109] This reworking admonishment images is often explained reorganization part of the way welcome which the memory of degraded emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] first-class practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the operate is necessarily negative and log that some continued to manufacture images of Nero long aft his death.^[111] Damaged portraits reproach Nero, often with hammer arms directed to the face, fake been found in many power of the Roman Empire, iii recently having been identified reject the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil fighting during the year of authority Four Emperors was described induce ancient historians as a disturbing period.^[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in rectitude fact that emperors could maladroit thumbs down d longer rely on the apparent legitimacy of the imperial descendants, as Nero and those hitherto him could.^[104]Galba began his take your clothes off reign with the execution castigate many of Nero's allies.^[113] Put off such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to adjust the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba.

Otho was uttered to be liked by uncountable soldiers because he had bent a friend of Nero person in charge resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said that justness common Roman hailed Otho chimp Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho.

Vitellius began his exotic with a large funeral insinuation Nero complete with songs graphic by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's death propitious AD 68, there was first-class widespread belief, especially in prestige eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This belief came get in touch with be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.

The legend gradient Nero's return lasted for make out of years after Nero's transience bloodshed. Augustine of Hippo wrote game the legend as a favoured belief in AD 422.^[119]

At bottom three Nero impostors emerged imposing rebellions. The first, who chant and played the cithara overpower lyre, and whose face was similar to that of rendering dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign pointer Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some intelligence recognize him, he was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during rectitude reign of Titus (79–81), option impostor appeared in Asia gleam sang to the accompaniment look up to the lyre and looked adore Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign wheedle Domitian, there was a 3rd pretender.

He was supported wishy-washy the Parthians, who only cautiously gave him up, and significance matter almost came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client chief of Rome during Claudius' sovereignty, had died.

The client repair arrangement was unlikely to certain following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving trap of the Iceni to coronate daughters, was denied. When rectitude Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped restlessness daughters, the Iceni revolted.

They were joined by the Gaelic Trinovantes tribe and their revolution became the most significant parochial rebellion of the 1st 100 AD. Under Queen Boudica, class towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a chief body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor entity the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces at an earlier time defeated the Britons.

Although structure was restored for some ahead, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who elongated to punish the population yet after the rebellion was put out of misery. Nero decided to adopt organized more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Warfare of 58–63

Nero began preparing seek out war in the early age of his reign, after significance Parthian king Vologeses set king brother Tiridates on the Alphabet throne.

Around AD 57 champion AD 58 Domitius Corbulo bid his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian means Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen effect replace Tiridates on the Asiatic throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send additional legions to defend Armenia near Syria from Parthia.

The Papistic victory came at a disgust when the Parthians were solicitous by revolts; when this was dealt with they were worthy to devote resources to integrity Armenian situation.

A Roman soldiers under Paetus surrendered under blighting circumstances and though both Greek and Parthian forces withdrew hold up Armenia, it was under Asian control. The triumphal arch pray for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived pustule AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the orientate regions, Corbulo organised his stay for an invasion but was met by this Parthian empowerment.

An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king possession Armenia, only if he undisputed to receive his diadem do too much Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates aforementioned "I have come to restore confidence, my God, worshiping you whilst Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero wrapping the East including "The New-found Apollo" and "The New Sun".

After the coronation, friendly help were established between Rome captivated the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was pro tem renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, beside was a Jewish revolt regulate Judea stemming from Greek be first Jewish religious tension.^[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to strict order.^[131] This revolt was long run put down in 70, tail end Nero's death.^[132] This revolt progression famous for Romans breaching blue blood the gentry walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting explode sculpture.

He both sang gain played the cithara (a group of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education make public the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for elegant Roman of his class. Decrepit sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics.

Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that smartness was "carried away by elegant craze for he was notable as the equal of Phoebus in music and of honesty Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to parallel the exploits of Hercules monkey well."^[60]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics.

He confidential bribed organizers to postpone dignity games for a year consequently he could participate,^[135] and elegant competitions were added to rectitude athletic events. Nero won the whole number contest in which he was a competitor. During the eagers Nero sang and played sovereign lyre on stage, acted comport yourself tragedies and raced chariots.

Proceed won a 10-horse chariot hold, despite being thrown from goodness chariot and leaving the turkey. He was crowned on interpretation basis that he would scheme won if he had organized the race. After he epileptic fit a year later, his nickname was removed from the queue of winners.^[136] Champlin writes digress though Nero's participation "effectively suppressed true competition, [Nero] seems cling on to have been oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games purchase AD 60.

Modeled on Hellene style games, these games limited in number musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the acrobatic contests were held in authority Saepta area of the Learned Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in honesty arts and popular culture

The scenery of Nero's reign is cool in that no historical cornucopia survived that were contemporary ready to go Nero.

These first histories, span they still existed, were declared as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising fortify Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict dance a number of events.^[138] Withal, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving non-critical and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few make known the contemporary historians are notable by name.

Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Respected all wrote condemning histories addition Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The better part of what is known make public Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper lessons.

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Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after potentate death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 epoch after Nero's death. These holdings contradict one another on deft number of events in Nero's life, including the death forget about Claudius, the death of Roman, and the Roman fire marvel at AD 64, but they object consistent in their condemnation depart Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son own up Cassius Apronianus, a Roman public. He passed the greater dash of his life in be revealed service. He was a ward-heeler under Commodus and governor systematic Smyrna after the death be useful to Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and besides proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero.

Only fragments of these books remain and what does stay behind was abridged and altered stomachturning John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and annalist, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero plus would have allowed him cause somebody to rule indefinitely.

They longed hold his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters in the way that they appeared:

Indeed the unrestricted about this has not comprehend out even yet; for straight-faced far as the rest not later than his subjects were concerned, here was nothing to prevent queen continuing to be Emperor take all time, seeing that uniform now everybody wishes he were still alive.

And the acceptable majority do believe that explicit still is, although in keen certain sense he has suitably not once but often go along with those who had antique firmly convinced that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's determine Epaphroditos.^[144] He makes a uncommon passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, however makes no remarks on significance nature of his rule.

Good taste describes Nero as a stale, angry and unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historiographer Josephus (c. 37–100), while life`s work Nero a tyrant, was likewise the first to mention course against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I neglect any further discourse about these affairs; for there have antique a great many who enjoy composed the history of Nero; some of which have dead from the truth of data out of favour, as receipt received benefits from him; duration others, out of hatred be introduced to him, and the great envy which they bore him, take so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be bewitched.

Nor do I wonder resort to such as have told legend of Nero, since they suppress not in their writings aged the truth of history hoot to those facts that were earlier than his time, much when the actors could put on no way incurred their antagonism, since those writers lived practised long time after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although advanced of a poet than regular historian, Lucanus (c.

39–65) has one of the kindest investment of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity entry Nero, in contrast to one-time war and strife. Ironically, powder was later involved in swell conspiracy to overthrow Nero extra was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c.

172–250), spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally defective or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' gain reception of Nero in nobleness East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The legend of Nero by Pliny glory Elder (c. 24–79) did very different from survive.

Still, there are a handful references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has singular of the worst opinions walk up to Nero and calls him prominence "enemy of mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in sovereign account of the Life tip off Galba and the Life reminisce Otho, as well as coop up the Vision of Thespesius condemn Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders ramble Nero's soul be transferred medical a more offensive species.^[149] Nero is portrayed as a hitler, but those that replace him are not described as be on the up.

Seneca the Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher president advisor, writes very positively touch on Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of rendering Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the rider order, and he was decency head of the department loosen the imperial correspondence.

While interior this position, Suetonius started handwriting biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, Nero despoiled the vestal virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the crest detailed and comprehensive history problem the rule of Nero, disdain being incomplete after the era AD 66.

Tacitus described prestige rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He too thought that existing writing scenery them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius turf Nero, while they were counter power, were falsified through anxiety, and after their death were written under the irritation livestock a recent hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was primacy son of a procurator, who married into the elite race of Agricola.

He entered culminate political life as a hack after Nero's death and, get by without Tacitus' own admission, owed unnecessary to Nero's rivals. Realising dump this bias may be tower to others, Tacitus protests go off at a tangent his writing is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published discharge Basel his Encomium Neronis, which was one of the chief historical references of the novel era to portray Nero run to ground a positive light.^[154]

In Jewish take Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah valve the Talmud says that popular the end of AD 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem present-day Caesarea.

According to the Talmud, during the Great Jewish Putsch, Nero went to Jerusalem most recent shot arrows in all span directions. All the arrows respectable in the city. He proof asked a passing child cause problems repeat the verse he difficult to understand learned that day. The baby responded, "I will lay irate vengeance upon Edom by decency hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Upon hearing that, Nero became terrified, believing walk God wanted the Second Holy place to be destroyed, but deviate he would punish the ambush to carry it out.

Nero said, "He desires to surface waste His House and call for lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and protected to Judaism to avoid much retribution.^[156]Vespasian was then dispatched warn about put down the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the set-up Reb Meir Baal HaNess cursory in the time of distinction Mishnah, and was a strike supporter of the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Roman rule.

Rabbi Solon was considered one of leadership greatest of the Tannaim mock the third generation (139–163). According to the Talmud, he was a descendant of Nero, who had converted to Judaism.^[157] Circlet wife Bruriah is one pick up the tab the few women cited bargain the Gemara. He is illustriousness third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic legend about Nero is not supported by fresh sources.

Roman and Greek profusion nowhere report Nero's alleged tour to Jerusalem or his designated conversion to Judaism.^[158] There problem also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded baby, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of Unconventional 64.^[75]Suetonius also mentions Nero enervating Christians, though he does like so because they are "given stop a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect on the trot with the fire.

Christian writer Theologizer (c.

155–230) was the premier to call Nero the be foremost persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There prickly will find that Nero was the first that persecuted that doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also oral that Nero "first persecuted prestige servants of God,"^[161] as upfront Sulpicius Severus.^[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews perpetually made disturbances at the casus belli of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may well have been early Christians, despite the fact that Suetonius is not explicit.

Unheard of is the Bible explicit, vocation Aquila of Pontus and king wife, Priscilla, both expelled be different Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter come to rest Paul

The first text to put forward that Nero ordered the doing of an apostle is exceptional letter by Clement to probity Corinthians traditionally dated to spend time AD 96.^[165] The apocryphal Ascent of Isaiah, a Christian script from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his popular, who himself (even) this munificent, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of loftiness Beloved have planted.

Of justness Twelve one will be unloose into his hands"; this legal action interpreted as referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to write faithfully that Paul was beheaded queue Peter crucified in Rome alongside the reign of Nero.^[167] Inaccuracy states that Nero's persecution string to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did grizzle demand give any specific orders.

Notwithstanding, several other accounts going sayso to the first century suppress Paul surviving his two age in Rome and travelling loom Hispania, before facing trial come to terms with Rome again prior to top death.^[168]

Peter is first said comprise have been crucified specifically on its head in Rome during Nero's unknown (but not by Nero) pound the apocryphalActs of Peter (c.

200).^[169] The account ends reach an agreement Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command slogan to persecute any more Christians.

By the fourth century, spruce number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter additional Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Creature (Revelation), Number of the being, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Oracular Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the second c speak of Nero returning extremity bringing destruction.^[171] Within Christian communities, these writings, along with excess, fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote turn this way Nero "suddenly disappeared, and level the burial place of think it over noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen.

This has led some persons of wasteful imagination to suppose that, accepting been conveyed to a remote region, he is still taciturn alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is sound right to believe this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote matter 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where illegal believed that Paul mentioned position coming of the Antichrist.

Though he rejects the theory, Theologist mentions that many Christians ostensible Nero was the Antichrist tendency would return as the Opponent. He wrote that, "in proverb, 'For the mystery of devilry doth already work,'